Lactation responses of beef cows that received diets containing supplemental sulfate sources of Co, Cu, Mn, and Zn (INR) or organic-complexed Co, Cu, Mn, and Zn (AAC) during gestation, and performances responses of their offspring until weaning 1. In order for an animal to utilize inorganic trace minerals, the animal must first convert them to organic biologically active forms, given that trace minerals in the body function almost entirely as organic complexes or chelates already [41]. The authors declare no conflict of interest. 1 Adapted from Harvey et al. McClure S.J. Distinct requirements for energy metabolism in mouse primordial germ cells and their reprogramming to embryonic germ cells. "They were all in good shape," he says. Bred on the range, cows usually spend the first two trimesters of pregnancy there. Remained on staff there for the following 33 years in various editorial positions: Swine Editor, Farm Management Editor, and Managing Editor. Industry concerns with liver abscesses in finishing cattle, Melatonin awakens MSU scientists to its health benefits for cattle, Winter wheat may be more valuable for grazing, hay crop this spring. Adapted from Beef NRC (1996). What vitamins and minerals These outcomes resulted in similar offspring growth from birth until weaning (Table 4). These authors, however, reported no differences in trace mineral profile of placental and calf liver samples from AAC-supplemented cows or those receiving INR diets (Table 3). De Oliveira I.M., Paulino P.V.R., Marcondes M.I., de Valadares Filho S.C., Detmann E., Cavali J., de Duarte M.S., Mezzomo R. Pattern of tissue deposition, gain and body composition of Nellore, F1 Simmental Nellore and F1 Angus Nellore steers fed at maintenance or ad libitum with two levels of concentrate in the diet. University of Minnesota Extension discovers science-based solutions, delivers practical education, and engages Minnesotans to build a better future. This research received no external funding. Cookies collect information about your preferences and your devices and are used to make the site work as you expect it to, to understand how you interact with the site, and to show advertisements that are targeted to your interests. The effect of trace mineral fortification level and source on performance of dairy cattle. Garcia M.R., Amstalden M., Williams S.W., Stanko R.L., Morrison C.D., Keisler D.H., Nizielski S.E., Williams G.L. Nutritional Requirements of Dairy Cattle - MSD Veterinary Manual The addition of high manganese to a copper-deficient diet further depresses copper status and growth of cattle. A review. The current requirements for trace minerals were established to support normal growth, reproductive, and immune functions but appear to be insufficient when cattle are exposed to stressors from management practices, such as weaning, road transport, and arrival at the feedlot [63]. Many producers often elect to supplement with hay during the winter months, which can be a good option. Ireland J.J., Smith G.W., Scheetz D., Jimenez-Krassel F., Folger J.K., Ireland J.L.H., Mossa F., Lonergan P., Evans A.C.O. Get Trace Minerals to Pregnant Cows | Drovers A meta-analysis by Rabiee et al. Nutrient prioritization Dietary absorbed nutrients need to be partitioned . The control group got no supplement. Feel free to use and share this content, but please do so under the conditions of our, https://www.ag.ndsu.edu/news/newsreleases/2016/feb-1-2016/good-nutrition-vital-for-pregnant-cows, Dakota Gardener: Make hay while the sun shines, Prairie Fare: July is National Grilling Month, Dakota Gardener: The science of mowing your lawn, Prairie Fare: Soaking up the sunshine vitamin. Hidiroglou M., Knipfel J.E. My question is, do I need to add loose minerals to her diet now or after she calves? Good Nutrition Vital for Pregnant Cows - Plone site Cow-calf production systems depend on forages as the main source of nutrients to cattle, which may be variable in quality and might not be nutritionally complete [33]. Example: Bulk tank average - 60 lbs, peak milk older cows - 86 lbs, (60 + 86) 2 = 73 lbs of milk to balance for. Least cost formulations change as feed costs change. Cows that are thin at calving have a greater chance of not becoming pregnant the following breeding season, compared with cows that calve in good body condition. Nutritional manipulation during periods of developmental plasticity such as the embryonic, fetal, and neonatal periods exerts short- and long-term consequences on skeletal muscle and adipose tissue development, health, and overall performance of offspring [3,4]. This means the same 1,300-pound cow that needed 12.5 pounds of TDN per day at a temperature of 18 F may need up to 14.8 pounds of TDN per day at a temperature of 0 F. However, cows have a limit on how much they can eat, so producers may have to increase the quality of the feed in addition to the quantity to ensure cows are meeting their requirements. Developmental programming, also called fetal programming, proposes that alterations in fetal nutritional or endocrine status may result in adaptations that permanently alter the trajectory of growth, physiology, and metabolism of the offspring [3,10]. Schillo K.K., Hall J.B., Hileman S.M. 10 penny-pinching tips for feeding cows this winter, XtremeAg farmers share wins and lessons of 2022 growing season, plans for 2023, Passion for beef production on a 121-year-old Sandhills ranch, Diversifying livestock and business on a South Dakota ranch, The truth about soil's ability to sequester carbon. Research indicates her developing fetus can be greatly affected, too. Carcass weight at harvest averaged 40 pounds more among those calves. Overton T.R., Yasui T. Practical applications of trace minerals for dairy cattle. Meeting these requirements, especially for energy and protein, relative to intake capacity is challenging. Formigoni A., Fustini M., Archetti L., Emanuele S., Sniffen C., Biagi G. Effects of an organic source of copper, manganese and zinc on dairy cattle productive performance, health status and fertility. Finding what feeds need to be combinedto meet or exceed these constraints at the lowest cost per pound of dry matter (DM). Mahatma Gandhi Libertarindependent Reply Save Like jbeall Productive responses and mRNA expression of longissimus muscle genes in replacement heifers born from beef cows that received diets containing supplemental sulfate sources of Co, Cu, Mn, and Zn (INR) or organic complexed source of Co, Cu, Mn, and Zn (AAC) during gestation 1. 3 Evaluated according to plasma progesterone concentrations in samples collected weekly. Knowing approximately how much hay cows will need is helpful in determining how much must be purchased for the season and how much will need to be fed each week. It doesnt balance the rationanddoesnt correct any nutrient deficiencies or excesses. During their last trimester, trace mineral supplements were given, except to the control group. Added fat shouldnt go above 7 percent of ration dry matter. To complement and provide further biological support to Marques et al. Failing to meet nutritional requirements during pregnancy can have devastating effects on future productivity of the cow. "We still have some questions. Feed cows one ounce plus 1 ounce for every 25 pounds of milk. Producers also should keep temperature in mind and protect cattle from wind and moisture to the extent possible. Evaluation of antral follicle count and ovarian morphology in crossbred beef cows: Investigation of influence of stage of the estrous cycle, age, and birth weight. [(accessed on 11 February 2021)]; Robinson D.L., Cafe L.M., Greenwood P.L. Moreover, the development of replacement beef heifers is a critical component of cow-calf systems, and production efficiency increases with improved female longevity [7]. Pax7 is required for the specification of myogenic satellite cells. The female is the factory on the ranch. Salt should be included in the grain mix at 1 percent. 4 Values are expressed as relative fold change compared with threshold cycle of reference genes analyzed within the same sample. Cooke is excited about promising research results on fetal programming. Acidosis, cows going off-feedand fluctuating dry matter intake. NDSU Agriculture Communication - Feb. 2, 2016. Magnesium The NRC recommendation is that Mg be fed at 0.22% of the total ration DM. ; writingreview and editing, K.M.H., R.F.C. [(accessed on 12 February 2021)]; Harvey K.M., Cooke R.F., Colombo E.A., Rett B., Sousa O.A., Harvey L.M., Russell J.R., Pohler K.G., Brando A.P. A lack there can defeat the ability to strive for reproduction goals. Gonzalez M.L., Busse N.I., Waits C.M., Johnson S.E. Given the essentiality of trace minerals to fetal developmental processes, their supplementation represents one approach to optimize offspring productivity. "There's something going on here," he says. B12 in fetal development. Given the essentiality of Cu, Mn, Co, and Zn for proper development of the fetal immune system [31,48] and their profound effects on antioxidant and enzyme components [64,65], maternal dietary trace mineral supply might be one feasible nutritional alternative to program the immune system of the fetus. Registered in England and Wales. Hence, effective prenatal nutritional management represents an opportunity to alter offspring development and performance. Developmental and reproductive characteristics of beef heifers classified by pubertal status at time of first breeding. Roberts A.J., da Silva A.G., Summers A.F., Geary T.W., Funston R.N. Identifying specific nutritional strategies targeting these periods of development provides a unique opportunity to optimize the efficiency and profitability of beef production systems. Trace minerals, for example, are involved in all stages of cell growth and differentiation and are vital components of many enzymes and cell structures [69]. Ireland J.L.H., Scheetz D., Jimenez-Krassel F., Themmen A.P.N., Ward F., Lonergan P., Smith G.W., Perez G.I., Evans A.C.O., Ireland J.J. Antral follicle count reliably predicts number of morphologically healthy oocytes and follicles in ovaries of young adult cattle. Before Careers, Unable to load your collection due to an error. Isotope Studies on the Physiology of Domestic Animals. Feed cows one ounce plus 1 ounce for every 25 pounds of milk. Hence, cow-calf producers must design and integrate mineral supplementation programs according to animal requirements and forage characteristics to maintain maximum long-term productivity [35]. Hurley L., Keen C. Fetal and neonatal development in relation to maternal trace element nutrition: Manganese, zinc, and copper. Becoming more prevalent in the industry are sources that are injected directly into the body, resulting in rapid increase in trace mineral status and prompt metabolism. Constant access to Purina Wind and Rain mineral helps cows build up mineral and vitamin reserves. Hence, these outcomes suggest that Cu and Zn status between AAC and INR cows may not have differed during gestation and upon calving as denoted by differences observed in liver concentrations of these trace minerals. Reinaldo Cooke, a beef specialist at Oregon State University, did a recent study on the topic. Griffiths L.M., Loeffler S.H., Socha M.T., Tomlinson D.J., Johnson A.B. Price D.M., ONeil M.M., Watson W.B., III, West R., Rae D.O., Irsik D.M., Hersom M.J., Yelich J.V. Tong J., Zhu M.J., Underwood K.R., Hess B.W., Ford S.P., Du M. AMP-activated protein kinase and adipogenesis in sheep fetal skeletal muscle and 3T3-L1 cells. The authors thank collaborating faculty, staff, and students that have helped conduct research in our laboratory and described in this manuscript. All minerals are important to the calf, however, since the cow is the single source of nutrients for the calf during gestation and during the first months of the calf's life. Bell A.W. Close-up (0 to 2 weeks before calving) DMI (lb/d) = 1.5% of body weight. Filling the Nutritional Gaps for Babies With Food Allergies - WebMD Balance rations to meet the nutrient requirements for each stage of lactation. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. The effect of maternal nutrient status during gestation can also have considerable impacts on the future reproductive performance of female progeny. Heat damaged forages will result in less available protein. 1 Adapted from Marques et al. Pepper M.R., Black M.M. Effect of copper, zinc, and manganese supplementation and source on reproduction, mineral status, and performance in grazing beef cattle over a two-year period. This scenario shows that heavier cows will require more nutrients than lighter cows. Dietary manipulation of Bos indicus heifers during gestation affects the reproductive development of their heifer calves. How can I reduce the risk of this happening again? Serum leptin and its adipose gene expression during pubertal development, the estrous cycle, and different seasons in cattle. Two groups: Balance rations at 20 percentabove average milk production of each group. Effect of complexed trace minerals on cumulus-oocyte complex recovery and in vitro embryo production in beef cattle. The U.S. is undergoing its worst bird flu outbreak ever. He reports supplementation of trace minerals during gestation is showing results of heavier animals at weaning, which in turn is allowing that animal to reach puberty sooner and enhancing the reproductive future of the cow herd. "Accomplish that first," he says. Supplementing trace minerals to gestating cows may be a strategy to enhance progeny performance and health. Therefore, Harvey et al. Nutritional management of beef cows impacts fetal development throughout the entirety of gestation [3], whereas Marques et al. 1Prairie Research Unit, Mississippi State University, Prairie, MS 39756, USA; ude.etatssm@yevrah.yeslek, 2Department of Animal Science, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA, 3Department of Animal and Range Sciences, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717, USA; ude.anatnom@seuqram.ogirdor. In addition, poor milk production by the dam will prevent her calf from achieving desirable gains. What To Feed Pregnant Cows? - corapark.com Cooke wondered if it would help the calves if the cows were given generous supplements of zinc, manganese, copper, and cobalt in the final trimester of pregnancy. Late-fall grazing of corn residue can be used to spare stockpiled forages for later in the winter. Barker D.J., Clark P.M. Fetal undernutrition and disease in later life. [72], and means within row with different superscripts (a,b) differ (p 0.05). . The role of essential trace elements in embryonic and fetal development in livestock. Body Condition Score (BCS) is a practical management tool that evaluates energy reserves in the form of fat and muscle in beef cows. Martin J.L., Vonnahme K.A., Adams D.C., Lardy G.P., Funston R.N. Accuration supplements are designed to complement your existing forage resources, so cows only consume supplement when they need it. Minerals Matter | Impact on cow reproduction | Beef Magazine In samples collected during late gestation (d 97), Harvey et al. Collectively, these results demonstrate organic-complexed trace mineral supplementation positively impacts cow productive and reproductive responses. Metal chelates, or complexes that constitute an organically bound trace mineral, are hypothesized to be stable in the digestive tract, thus protecting the metal from forming complexes with other dietary components that would inhibit absorption, and perhaps allowing greater absorption of the trace mineral [41]. Select vitamin and mineral recommendation are: Salt: Cows need 3 to 4 oz of salt per day. Nutritional management of the pregnant dairy cow to optimize health 2 Heifer body weight (BW) were obtained 45 d after weaning (initial) and at the end of the experiment (210 d later), which were used to calculate average daily gain. Answer: If Right Now Mineral is properly managed on a year-round basis, we anticipate that average intake will be between 3 and 4 ounces per head per day. Hangers & Brackets Shop All. and R.d.S.M. Marques et al. Selenium/vitamin E: Role in disease prevention and weight gain of neonatal calves. To meet the cows nutritional needs while maintaining health. Adapted from Rasby et al., 2014. Evidence of heterogeneity within bovine satellite cells isolated from young and adult animals. BOARD-INVITED REVIEW: Intrauterine growth retardation: Implications for the animal sciences. Therefore, thin cows and heifers need to be on a greater plane of nutrition than older cows in good condition. Reinaldo Cooke, a beef specialist at Oregon State University, did a recent study on the topic. Beef Cattle Nutrition and Feeding | Penn State Extension The calves from the organic-mineral group had a $70 per head advantage over controls at weaning while the inorganic-mineral group had a $32 per head advantage. Number 8860726. Wilson T.B., Faulkner D.B., Shike D.W. Caton J.S., Crouse M.S., Reynolds L.P., Neville T.L., Dahlen C.R., Ward A.K., Swanson K.C. Effects of feeding organic trace minerals on milk production and reproductive performance in lactating dairy cows: A meta-analysis. Maternal undernutrition in cows impairs ovarian and cardiovascular systems in their offspring. [72] reported greater hepatic mRNA expression of metallothionein 1A (MT) in AAC supplemented cows, and similar hepatic mRNA expression of Cu-transporter protein (CUT), and Cu-Zn-superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD) compared with INR cows at calving (Table 2). [43] reported that cows can be supplemented with organic trace minerals at 75% of requirements with no reduction in reproductive or productive performance compared with supplementing 100% of requirements using only sulfate sources. The Results Beef Magazine is part of the Informa Markets Division of Informa PLC. If cows are thin at weaning (less than a score of 5), additional feeds may be required so that they can gain the weight necessary to achieve optimal performance after calving. No more than 2 percent added fat should be from any one of these sources: animal, vegetable or rumen inert. In Harvey et al. Many beef cattle systems rely on forages to provide nutrients, but the forages may not always be nutritionally complete. Therefore, mineral supplementation programs need to be designed with these three factors in mind: the animal category, the stage of production, and the basal diet (the forage). Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle: Eighth Revised Edition. Moreover, trace mineral deficiency, specifically Zn, leads to epigenetic defects and impaired ovarian development during the fetal period [99]. [85], and means within row with different superscripts differ at p 0.05 (a,b) or p = 0.09 (x,y). Nutritional Needs Prior to Calving - SDSU Extension Hay Carriers Shop All. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Osorio J.S., Trevisi E., Li C., Drackley J.K., Socha M.T., Loor J.J. Supplementing Zn, Mn, and Cu from amino acid complexes and Co from cobalt glucoheptonate during the peripartal period benefits postpartal cow performance and blood neutrophil function. Generally, stockpiled forages can meet the nutritional needs of pregnant cows during mild to moderate temperatures as long as sufficient quantities are available. Moreover, recent reviews focused on developmental programming have suggested that nutritional manipulation during gestation can have profound influences on the occurrences of adulthood disease and long-term performance [3,11], given that development of the fetus is sensitive to direct and indirect effects of maternal nutrition at all stages between oocyte maturation to parturition [12,13]. Salt & Mineral Block Holders Shop All. Supplementing gestating beef cows with AAC also did not impact hepatic mRNA expression of CUT, MT, or SOD in calves at birth or 24 h later (Table 3), further suggesting similar hepatic Cu and Zn metabolism during early life [75,77,78]. They followed the calves all the way through finishing. Salt:Cows need 3 to 4 oz of salt per day. Even though human diets tend to be diverse with lots of trace minerals, doctors still often recommend that pregnant women take extra supplements, just to be on the safe side. Nutritional manipulation during periods of developmental plasticity such as the embryonic, fetal, and neonatal periods exert lasting effects on skeletal muscle and adipose tissue development, health, and overall performance of offspring [3]. Pregnant cows, timing of pregnancy, open cows, pregnancy rate Calcium: more than 150 grams/day or .75 to1 percentof ration dry matter. Collectively, Harvey et al. In turn, heifers from INR cows had greater mRNA expression of myogenin and tended to have greater mRNA expression of paired box gene 7 (PAX7) in the LM compared with AAC cohorts (Table 5). Gooneratne S.R., Christensen D.A. Patel M.S., Srinivasan M. Metabolic programming in the immediate postnatal life. On spring pastures, which bring a risk of grass (Mg) tetany, a Mg level of 0.30 to 0.35% of the total ration DM or higher is often needed. Zhu M.-J., Ford S.P., Nathanielsz P.W., Du M. Effect of maternal nutrient restriction in sheep on the development of fetal skeletal muscle. Reynolds L.P., Vonnahme K.A. . Supplementing organic trace minerals may be of even greater benefit if offered to beef cows over a greater duration of gestation. [72] reported greater liver Co, less liver Cu, and similar liver Zn and Mn between cows supplemented with sulfate or organic complexed sources (Table 2), corroborating results reported by Marques et al. Each mineral is critical to the metabolic system of the animal and each mineral has its own importance, but each one also has its connection in working with other minerals, Cooke told cattlemen during NCBAs producer education webinar series focusing on mineral nutrition strategies. Myogenic factors are downregulated as cattle mature and muscle fibers are fully developed [5,94]; therefore Harvey et al. Organic trace mineral supplementation to dairy cows significantly increased milk production, milk fat yield, and milk protein yield compared to inorganic trace mineral supplemented cohorts [44]. The basis of a cows diet should be high-quality forage. Decisions a cattle producer makes about pregnant cow nutrition now can have major impacts on calf health in the spring and cow fertility during the next breeding season. Inclusion in an NLM database does not imply endorsement of, or agreement with, Copyright 2023. Weiss W.P., Colenbrander V.F., Cunningham M.D., Callahan C.J. How minerals may influence the development and expression of immunity to endoparasites in livestock. [72] reported that supplementing Co, Cu, Zn, and Mn as organic complexed or sulfate sources yielded similar cow-calf productive responses until weaning. Although no treatment differences were detected for calf birth body weight (BW), Marques et al. Three measures of fiber should be evaluated in dairy rations: The NDF-Forage is only the NDF from hays, haylagesand corn silage. How much mineral should my cattle eat? Web page addresses and e-mail addresses turn into links automatically. Student Focused. 2050 High-Level Experts Forum: The Forum. Seale P., Sabourin L.A., Girgis-Gabardo A., Mansouri A., Gruss P., Rudnicki M.A. An Overview of the impact of the high variation in the ovarian reserve on ovarian function and fertility, utility of anti-Mllerian hormone as a diagnostic marker for fertility and causes of variation in the ovarian reserve in cattle. The site is secure. Most well-managed pastures will have adequate calcium, and legumes will have more calcium than grasses (alfalfa can contain 1% calcium or more.) ONeil M.M., West S.M., Maia T.S., Cardoso R.C., Williams G.L. Taken together, these findings indicate maternal nutritional status during gestation significantly impacts offspring growth and development [3], leading to long-term effects on performance and quality of carcass traits [3,26] and altered reproductive function of female progeny [27]. ; writingoriginal draft preparation, K.M.H., R.F.C. She is due in about 4-5 weeks. Mineral supplementation of cows during pregnancy is one example. Complementing these findings, heifer progeny born to AAC supplemented cows had accelerated puberty attainment. Current protein and energy content of native pastures and/or crop residues likely are not suitable for cows calving in early to midspring. [59], whereas maternal nutrition and weaning BW have tremendous impacts on female reproductive development [27,59], and research investigating trace mineral supplementation during gestation and female progeny performance is limited. Maternal nutrient restriction results in a reduction in the total number of secondary muscle fibers [14], however, maternal overnutrition results in elevated expression of adipogenic genes in fetal skeletal muscle [16] and increased number and size of adipocytes in the skeletal muscle postnatally [17]. Beginning in the late fall when pasture growth becomes limited, stockpiled forages can be used to feed cows. Organic trace minerals in ruminant nutrition. Alterations in maternal nutritional status may promote adaptations that permanently alter the trajectory of growth, physiology, and metabolism of the offspring. 3 Values are expressed as relative fold change compared with threshold cycle of reference genes analyzed within the same sample. As noted by Harvey et al. Prohaska J.R., Gybina A.A. Intracellular copper transport in mammals. Land Grant. Within days: 0.05 p 0.10; * p 0.05; ** p < 0.01. Brown T.F., Zeringue L.K. They are often the root cause of wrecks like open cows, embryonic death, delayed puberty, and reduced fertility, explains Cooke. Trace element transport in the mammary gland. What minerals do pregnant cows need? Pregnant Cow Nutrition: The Last Trimester - Redmond Agriculture Primordial germs cells within the developing ovary actively utilize machinery and enzymes against reactive oxygen species (ROS) to maintain cell integrity [96], and increased antioxidant enzyme activity and decreased ROS production during germ cell development results with trace mineral supplementation [97,98]. [85] aimed to evaluate the effects of supplementing organic complexed or sulfate sources of Co, Cu, Mn, and Zn to beef cows during the second and third trimesters of gestation on post-weaning responses of the female offspring reared as replacement heifers. [72] also reported liver concentrations of Cu, Co, Mn, and Zn decreased in all calves from birth to 24 h after birth (Table 3), which was expected given that the bovine neonate depends heavily on liver stores of trace minerals for postnatal utilization due to low concentrations of these elements in colostrum and milk [37]. Hansen S.L., Ashwell M.S., Legleiter L.R., Fry R.S., Lloyd K.E., Spears J.W. USDA APHIS|NAHMS Beef Cow-Calf Studies. Feeding the Gestating Cow | University of Maryland Extension Moreover, Marques et al. Forage Quantity.The amount of available forageobviously affects the need for supplemental feed. The ruminant feed pyramid providesthe basis for formulating rations. Previous research has demonstrated supplemented organic complexed trace minerals improved reproductive performance in cattle, decreasing interval to first estrus and increasing pregnancy rates [45,46], as well as resulting in improved in vitro embryo production efficiency [47]. In maximum profit, the computer selects feeds and calculates a milk production level to obtain maximum profit. Include vitamins and minerals to meet the cows needs. ", One thing he does know is that cows need to be kept in good body condition to start with. 8600 Rockville Pike Cows that are in less than ideal body condition at calving (ideal condition being around 5 or 6 on a 9-point scale) generally take longer to begin cycling and showing heats again after calving, and are at higher risk for being open at the end of the breeding season. Adapted from Harvey et al. We just preg checked the cows in our herd and we felt we had too many open cows. the contents by NLM or the National Institutes of Health. Magnesium: 0.3 to 0.4 percent of ration dry matter. 2 Samples collected via needle biopsy 2 weeks prior to the beginning of the calving season. "Just putting simple math to it, we gained up to $70 in calf value with an investment of $2 or $3 per cow," he says. In turn, Harvey et al. Suboptimal maternal nutrient status during gestation also results in alterations within the neuroendocrine system of the female offspring, leading to delayed puberty attainment and disrupted reproductive function [25].
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