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Kafkaesque elements often appear in existential works, but the term has transcended the literary realm to apply to real-life occurrences and situations that are incomprehensibly complex, bizarre, or illogical. [283], Apache Kafka, an open-source stream processing platform originally released in January 2011, is named after Kafka. On November 1, 1907, he was hired at the Assicurazioni Generali, an aggressive Italian insurance company, where he worked for nearly a year. Both Ellie and Valli also had children. 40 Franz Kafka died in 1924 at the age of 40. Esther Hoffe sold the original manuscript of Der Process for US$2million in 1988 to the German Literary Archive Museum of Modern Literature in Marbach am Neckar. Franz Kafka's father had this kind of business. Brod compared Kafka to Heinrich von Kleist, noting that both writers had the ability to describe a situation realistically with precise details. It has been noted that due to the great pain in his throat, from this condition, he was unable to eat and barely to drink in his last days. For the Breaking Bad episode, see, Lese- und Redehalle der Deutschen Studenten. [201], Kafka's style has been compared to that of Kleist as early as 1916, in a review of "Die Verwandlung" and "Der Heizer" by Oscar Walzel in Berliner Beitrge. [103] Joan Lachkar interpreted Die Verwandlung as "a vivid depiction of the borderline personality" and described the story as "model for Kafka's own abandonment fears, anxiety, depression, and parasitic dependency needs. Kafka obtained the degree of Doctor of Law on June 18, 1906 and performed an obligatory year of unpaid service as law clerk for the civil and criminal courts. Kafka's intent was that the castle's authorities notify K. on his deathbed that his "legal claim to live in the village was not valid, yet, taking certain auxiliary circumstances into account, he was to be permitted to live and work there". At the university, he joined a student club, named Lese- und Redehalle der Deutschen Studenten, which organized literary events, readings and other activities. William Burrows claims that such work is centred on the concepts of struggle, pain, solitude, and the need for relationships. [192][193] A ruling by a Tel Aviv family court in 2010 held that the papers must be released and a few were, including a previously unknown story, but the legal battle continued. "Kafka" redirects here. . [191] She released or sold some, but left most to her daughters, Eva and Ruth, who also refused to release the papers. [89] Brod felt that two of Kafka's most distinguishing traits were "absolute truthfulness" (absolute Wahrhaftigkeit) and "precise conscientiousness" (przise Gewissenhaftigkeit). 1905 - Faculty of Law of the German University in Prague, Books of examination protocols of State Examination Commissions, inventory No. var sc_project=515386; Early Life: Who was Franz Kafka's mother? In 1912, at the home of his lifelong friend Max Brod, Kafka met Felice Bauer, who lived in Berlin and worked as a representative for a dictaphone company. After seeing a Yiddish theatre troupe perform in October 1911, for the next six months Kafka "immersed himself in Yiddish language and in Yiddish literature". It was dark. [162][163] Canetti titled his book on Kafka's letters to Felice Kafka's Other Trial, in recognition of the relationship between the letters and the novel. [40][41] Kafka was awarded the degree of Doctor of Law on 18 June 1906[b] and performed an obligatory year of unpaid service as law clerk for the civil and criminal courts. [181][182] Brod finished many of Kafka's incomplete works for publication. All three were murdered in the Holocaust of World War II. For example, Kafka left Der Process with unnumbered and incomplete chapters and Das Schloss with incomplete sentences and ambiguous content;[182] Brod rearranged chapters, copy-edited the text, and changed the punctuation. "[113], During the communist era, the legacy of Kafka's work for Eastern Bloc socialism was hotly debated. [211][216] In an early 21st-century publication that uses Kafka's office writings as its point of departure,[217] Pothik Ghosh states that with Kafka, law "has no meaning outside its fact of being a pure force of domination and determination".[218]. AP in conjunction with Uranus. Those performances also served as a starting point for his growing relationship with Judaism. Died Place: Kierling, Austria: Nationality: Austria-Hungary [now in Czech Republic] . [151][152][153] The story "In der Strafkolonie" ("In the Penal Colony"), dealing with an elaborate torture and execution device, was written in October 1914,[82] revised in 1918, and published in Leipzig during October 1919. Kafka's troubled relationship with his father is evident in his Brief an den Vater (Letter to His Father) of more than 100pages, in which he complains of being profoundly affected by his father's authoritarian and demanding character;[19] his mother, in contrast, was quiet and shy. [82] During a vacation in July 1923 to Graal-Mritz on the Baltic Sea, Kafka met Dora Diamant, a 25-year-old kindergarten teacher from an orthodox Jewish family. He died in obscurity in 1924 at the age of 40 from tuberculosis. Notes and Questions on Franz Kafka's "The Metamorphosis" / "The Transformation", "Gabriel Garcia Marquez, The Art of Fiction No. Their relationship finally ended in 1917. Bare throat. [28], Admitted to the Deutsche Karl-Ferdinands-Universitt of Prague in 1901, Kafka began studying chemistry but switched to law after two weeks. During that period, he also found interest and entertainment in the performances of Yiddish theatre, despite the misgivings of even close friends such as Max Brod, who usually supported him in everything else. [131], Kafka's laryngeal tuberculosis worsened and in March 1924 he returned from Berlin to Prague,[70] where members of his family, principally his sister Ottla and Dora Diamant, took care of him. Brod defended his action by claiming that he had told Kafka, "I shall not carry out your wishes", and that "Franz should have appointed another executor if he had been absolutely determined that his instructions should stand". Kafka finished none of his full-length novels and burned around 90 percent of his work,[136][137] much of it during the period he lived in Berlin with Diamant, who helped him burn the drafts. The following are examples of works across a range of dramatic, literary, and musical genres which demonstrate the extent of Kafka's cultural influence: The term "Kafkaesque" is used to describe concepts and situations reminiscent of Kafka's work, particularly Der Process (The Trial) and Die Verwandlung (The Metamorphosis). 3, Registry book of doctors of the German Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague/German University in Prague (19041924), page 42", "Exam 22 March 1906 - Faculty of Law of the German University in Prague, Books of examination protocols of State Examination Commissions, inventory No. [194] The Hoffes claim the papers are their personal property, while the National Library of Israel argues they are "cultural assets belonging to the Jewish people". It has been said that this was the only period in Kafka's life in which he achieved happiness. One problem was that Kafka often began writing in different parts of the book; sometimes in the middle, sometimes working backwards from the end. This can be seen in the works of authors such as George Orwell and Ray Bradbury.[201]. He burned an estimated 90 per cent of his total work due to his persistent struggles with self-doubt. What little was published during his lifetime attracted scant public attention. [163] Michiko Kakutani notes in a review for The New York Times that Kafka's letters have the "earmarks of his fiction: the same nervous attention to minute particulars; the same paranoid awareness of shifting balances of power; the same atmosphere of emotional suffocationcombined, surprisingly enough, with moments of boyish ardour and delight. The story was also included in the collection A Hunger Artist (Ein Hungerknstler), the last book Kafka prepared for publication, which was printed by Verlag Die Schmiede shortly after his death. [127] Pavel Eisner, one of Kafka's first translators, interprets Der Process (The Trial) as the embodiment of the "triple dimension of Jewish existence in Prague his protagonist Josef K. is (symbolically) arrested by a German (Rabensteiner), a Czech (Kullich), and a Jew (Kaminer). [115] Whether or not Kafka was a political writer is still an issue of debate.[116]. Eine Geschichte von Franz Kafka." It deals with the troubled relationship of a son and his dominant father, facing a new situation after the son's engagement. His throat made it too painful for him to eat and he died of starvation on June 3, 1924, in Dora's arms. [248] Harry Steinhauer, a professor of German and Jewish literature, says that Kafka "has made a more powerful impact on literate society than any other writer of the twentieth century". The sentence above also exemplifies an instance of another difficult problem facing translators: dealing with the author's intentional use of ambiguous idioms and words that have several meanings, which results in phrasing that is difficult to translate precisely. [112] In one diary entry, Kafka made reference to the influential anarchist philosopher Peter Kropotkin: "Don't forget Kropotkin! He went to Hugo Hoffmann's sanatorium in Kierling just outside Vienna for treatment on 10 April,[82] and died there on 3 June 1924. From 1889 to 1893, he attended the Deutsche Knabenschule, the boys' elementary school at the Fleischmarkt (meat market), the street now known as Masn Street in Prague. Over the next five years they corresponded a great deal, met occasionally, and twice were engaged to be married. [95] He was highly sensitive to noise and preferred absolute quiet when writing. Hartmut M. Rastalsky noted in his thesis: "Like dreams, his texts combine precise 'realistic' detail with absurdity, careful observation and reasoning on the part of the protagonists with inexplicable obliviousness and carelessness. In 1923, he briefly moved to Berlin in the hope of distancing himself from his family's influence to concentrate on his writing. Franz Kafka height - How tall is Franz Kafka? [111][112] Bergmann said: "Franz became a socialist, I became a Zionist in 1898. Franz Kafka is Dead He died in a tree from which he wouldn't come down. [190], When Brod died in 1968, he left Kafka's unpublished papers, which are believed to number in the thousands, to his secretary Esther Hoffe. All his novels . In late 1911, Elli's husband Karl Hermann and Kafka became partners in the first asbestos factory in Prague, known as Prager Asbestwerke Hermann & Co., having used dowry money from Hermann Kafka. [173] Kafka prepared a final collection of four stories for print, Ein Hungerknstler (A Hunger Artist), which appeared in 1924 after his death, in Verlag Die Schmiede. [130], Livia Rothkirchen calls Kafka the "symbolic figure of his era". A Story by Franz Kafka.") Kafka learned German as his first language, but he was also almost fluent in Czech. On business days, both parents were absent from the home. 3 July, 1883 - 3, June, 1924 Early Life:Where was he born? Later in May 1892, when Kafka was nearly 9 years old, AP passed over Uranus in the 2nd house. [20] The dominating figure of Kafka's father had a significant influence on Kafka's writing. [198] Gabriel Garca Mrquez noted the reading of Kafka's The Metamorphosis showed him "that it was possible to write in a different way". [146][147] Kafka later described writing it as "a complete opening of body and soul",[148] a story that "evolved as a true birth, covered with filth and slime". [178] Kafka's last lover, Dora Diamant (later, Dymant-Lask), also ignored his wishes, secretly keeping 20notebooks and 35letters. . According to the Kafka Museum, shortly before he died, Kafka asked Diamont's father if he could marry her. His diary contains many references to Yiddish writers. His state of health was already quite serious, he was 40 years old at that time. Franz Kafka [a] (3 July 1883 - 3 June 1924) was a German-speaking Bohemian novelist and short-story writer based in Prague, who is widely regarded as one of the major figures of 20th-century literature. [68][69], Shortly after this meeting, Kafka wrote the story "Das Urteil" ("The Judgment") in only one night and worked in a productive period on Der Verschollene (The Man Who Disappeared) and Die Verwandlung (The Metamorphosis). An illustrious example is Franz Kafka". Critics regard the work as one of the seminal works of fiction of the 20th century. [233][234] English translators often render the word Ungeziefer as 'insect'; in Middle German, however, Ungeziefer literally means 'an animal unclean for sacrifice';[235] in today's German, it means 'vermin'. [202] The nature of Kafka's prose allows for varied interpretations and critics have placed his writing into a variety of literary schools. [57] During that period, he also found interest and entertainment in the performances of Yiddish theatre. Later, Kafka also acquired some knowledge of French language and culture; one of his favorite authors was Flaubert. [144], In a creative outburst on the night of 22 September 1912, Kafka wrote the story "Das Urteil" ("The Judgment", literally: "The Verdict") and dedicated it to Felice Bauer. [114] A further key point was Marx's theory of alienation. [37] Kafka considered Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Gustav Flaubert, Nikolai Gogol, Franz Grillparzer,[38] and Heinrich von Kleist to be his "true blood brothers". It recognizes the merits of literature as "humanistic character and contribution to cultural, national, language and religious tolerance, its existential, timeless character, its generally human validity, and its ability to hand over a testimony about our times". [116] The hopelessness and absurdity common to his works are seen as emblematic of existentialism. . [154] His last story, "Josefine, die Sngerin oder Das Volk der Muse" ("Josephine the Singer, or the Mouse Folk"), also deals with the relationship between an artist and his audience. As I was taking my seat I looked at her closely for the first time, by the time I was seated I already had an unshakeable opinion. "A Hunger Artist" (German: "Ein Hungerknstler") is a short story by Franz Kafka first published in Die neue Rundschau in 1922. Author Franz Kafka grew up in an upper middle-class Jewish family. Come down! [6][251][275][276], Numerous films and television works have been described as Kafkaesque, and the style is particularly prominent in dystopian science fiction. In his work, Kafka often created malevolent, absurd worlds. Kafka never enjoyed attending the synagogue and went with his father only on four high holidays a year. After working as a traveling sales representative, he established himself as an independent retailer of men's and women's fancy goods and accessories, employing up to 15 people and using a jackdaw (kavka in Czech) as his business logo. Together with his close friends Max Brod and Felix Weltsch these three were called "Der enge Prager Kreis", the close Prague circle. These are hidden from the individual but control the lives of the people, who are innocent victims of systems beyond their control. His work fuses elements of realism and the fantastic. When I arrived at Brod's on 13 August, she was sitting at the table. Kurt Wolff published two other novels, Das Schloss in 1926 and Amerika in 1927. [195] The Tel Aviv Family Court ruled in October 2012, six months after Ruth's death, that the papers were the property of the National Library. Hermann was the fourth child of Jacob Kafka, a butcher, and came to Prague from Osek, a Jewish village near Psek in southern Bohemia. [76][77] However, Kafka's biographer Peter-Andr Alt says that, while Bloch had a son, Kafka was not the father as the pair were never intimate. Dry goods. Franz Kafka, (born July 3, 1883, Prague, Bohemia, Austria-Hungary [now in Czech Republic]died June 3, 1924, Kierling, near Vienna, Austria), German-language writer of visionary fiction whose worksespecially the novel Der Prozess (1925; The Trial) and the story Die Verwandlung (1915; The Metamorphosis )express the anxieties and alienation felt. Bergmann refused to host Kafka because he had young children and was afraid that Kafka would infect them with tuberculosis. [6], Michel-Andr Bossy writes that Kafka created a rigidly inflexible and sterile bureaucratic universe. [201] His characters are trapped, confused, full of guilt, frustrated, and lacking understanding of their surreal world. He kept diaries and Oktavhefte (octavo). Kafka had no intention of labeling Gregor, the protagonist of the story, as any specific thing but instead wanted to convey Gregor's disgust at his transformation. [222] The Muirs translated all shorter works that Kafka had seen fit to print; they were published by Schocken Books in 1948 as The Penal Colony: Stories and Short Pieces,[223] including additionally The First Long Train Journey, written by Kafka and Brod, Kafka's "A Novel about Youth", a review of Felix Sternheim's Die Geschichte des jungen Oswald, his essay on Kleist's "Anecdotes", his review of the literary magazine Hyperion, and an epilogue by Brod. [286], San Diego State University operates the Kafka Project, which began in 1998 as the official international search for Kafka's last writings. [19][200] Other prominent themes and archetypes include alienation, physical and psychological brutality, characters on a terrifying quest, and mystical transformation. 10, Juridical Historical State Examination Commission at the German Charles-Ferdinand University in Prague (1902-1903), page 12789", "Reading Kafka Visually: Gothic Ornament and the Motion of Writing in Kafka's, Translated excerpts from Kafka's Diaries 19101923, Franz Kafka: Manuscripts, drawings and personal letters, Spolenost Franze Kafky a nakladatelstv Franze Kafky, Insect Dreams: The Half Life of Gregor Samsa, A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Franz_Kafka&oldid=1160974255, Articles with Encyclopdia Britannica links, Wikipedia pending changes protected pages, Articles containing Italian-language text, Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata, Pages using Sister project links with default search, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 4.0, an outdoor sculpture on Vzesk street in the Jewish Quarter of Prague, by artist, HAZE Netlabel released musical compilation, by Spanish composer Francisco Coll on a text by Meredith Oakes, built from texts and fragments by Franz Kafka; Commissioned by, a virtual reality experience of the first part of, This page was last edited on 19 June 2023, at 21:19. [126] Lothar Kahn is likewise unequivocal: "The presence of Jewishness in Kafka's oeuvre is no longer subject to doubt". Much of the remaining 10 per cent is lost or otherwise unpublished. [6], Stach and Brod state that during the time that Kafka knew Felice Bauer, he had an affair with a friend of hers, Margarethe "Grete" Bloch,[75] a Jewish woman from Berlin. It is only now, when I'm 42a year older than Kafka was when he died (in a happy relationship at last, with a woman half his age)that I am able to see any of these relationships, his or mine, with anything resembling clarity. Published Mar 9, 2021 Updated May 25, 2021 Image Via Culture Club/Getty Images Advertisment: Claim: In the early 1920s, Franz Kafka consoled a little girl he met in the park by writing dozens. He had several girlfriends and lovers across his life. His body was ultimately brought back to Prague where he was interred on June 11, 1924, in the New Jewish Cemetery in Prague-ikov. Brod says that Bloch gave birth to Kafka's son, although Kafka never knew about the child. It has also influenced artists, composers, and philosophers. [230] An example is the first sentence of Kafka's The Metamorphosis, which is crucial to the setting and understanding of the entire story:[231]. He later attempted to join the military but was prevented from doing so by medical problems associated with tuberculosis,[61] with which he was diagnosed in 1917. According to Rothkirchen, "This situation lent their writings a broad cosmopolitan outlook and a quality of exaltation bordering on transcendental metaphysical contemplation. Kafka published a fragment in 1908[143] and two sections in the spring of 1909, all in Munich. [96], Prez-lvarez has claimed that Kafka may have possessed a schizoid personality disorder. [97] His style, it is claimed, not only in Die Verwandlung (The Metamorphosis), but in various other writings, appears to show low to medium-level schizoid traits, which Prez-lvarez claims to have influenced much of his work. Als Gregor Samsa eines Morgens aus unruhigen Trumen erwachte, fand er sich in seinem Bett zu einem ungeheuren Ungeziefer verwandelt. Kafka. Doctor Manfred M. Fichter of the Psychiatric Clinic, University of Munich, presented "evidence for the hypothesis that the writer Franz Kafka had suffered from an atypical anorexia nervosa",[106] and that Kafka was not just lonely and depressed but also "occasionally suicidal". Franz Kafka, (born July 3, 1883, Prague, Bohemia, Austria-Hungarydied June 3, 1924, Kierling, near Vienna, Austria), Czech writer who wrote in German. Fittingly, the novel's protagonist, 17-year old Karl Rossman is the conduit through whom Kafka , gets a rebirth with a full name in a new country. In Kafka's work, a character is punished although a crime has not been committed. [105] He may have suffered from an eating disorder. [92], Although Kafka showed little interest in exercise as a child, he later developed a passion for games and physical activity,[36] and was an accomplished rider, swimmer, and rower. Instead, he is noted more for his visions and perspective. [134] His body was brought back to Prague where he was buried on 11 June 1924, in the New Jewish Cemetery in Prague-ikov. [139], Kafka drew and sketched extensively. His letters to her were later published as Briefe an Milena. Known For: Literary depictions of the alienation of the modern individual, particularly through governmental bureaucracy Born: July 3, 1883 in Prague, Bohemia, Austro-Hungarian Empire (now Czech Republic) Parents: Hermann Kafka and Julie Lwy Died: June 3, 1924 in Kierling, Austria Education: Deutsche Karl-Ferdinands-Universitt of Prague Kafka, hoping to escape the influence of his family to concentrate on his writing, moved briefly to Berlin (September 1923-March 1924) and lived with Diamant. Jost Schillemeit was the editor of Der Verschollene (Amerika) published in 1983. [5] His best known works include the novella The Metamorphosis and novels The Trial and The Castle. Early Life: Who was Franz Kafka's father? Over the course of his life, Kafka wrote hundreds of letters to family and close friends, including his father, with whom he had a strained and formal relationship. However, he did not show any signs of indifference towards his job, as the several promotions that he received during his career prove that he was a hard working employee. Kafka illuminated the borderline's general confusion of normal and healthy desires, wishes, and needs with something ugly and disdainful. It was discovered on 10 January 1983 by American astronomers Randolph Kirk and Donald Rudy at Palomar Observatory in California, United States,[282] and named after Kafka by them. Franz Kafka died in 1924 from complications related to tuberculosis. (I alienate myself from her a little by inspecting her so closely) Almost broken nose. A major component of the museum is an exhibit, The City of K. Franz Kafka and Prague, which was first shown in Barcelona in 1999, moved to the Jewish Museum in New York City, and finally established in Prague in Mal Strana (Lesser Town), along the Moldau, in 2005. [243] The story "Ein Hungerknstler" ("A Hunger Artist"), published in the periodical Die neue Rundschau in 1924, describes a victimized protagonist who experiences a decline in the appreciation of his strange craft of starving himself for extended periods. [286] The recipient receives $10,000, a diploma, and a bronze statuette at a presentation in Prague's Old Town Hall, on the Czech State Holiday in late October. Ich habe kaum etwas mit mir gemeinsam und sollte mich ganz still, zufrieden damit da ich atmen kann in einen Winkel stellen. For thirty-six-year-old Kafka, she was "a living fire, such as I have never seen." It was to Milena that he revealed his most intimate self and, eventually, entrusted his diaries for safekeeping. His first eight were printed in 1908 in the first issue of the bi-monthly Hyperion. [51][52] His father often referred to his son's job as an insurance officer as a Brotberuf, literally "bread job", a job done only to pay the bills; Kafka often claimed to despise it. [213] The law in Kafka's works, rather than being representative of any particular legal or political entity, is usually interpreted to represent a collection of anonymous, incomprehensible forces. [159] It uses many details of experiences from his relatives who had emigrated to America[160] and is the only work for which Kafka considered an optimistic ending. [220] In 1930, Edwin and Willa Muir translated the first German edition of Das Schloss. Later editions, notably those of 1954 (Dearest Father: Stories and Other Writings), included text, translated by Eithne Wilkins and Ernst Kaiser,[224] that had been deleted by earlier publishers. [278][279], However, with common usage, the term has become so ubiquitous that Kafka scholars note it is often misused. Located in present-day Czechia (also called the Czech Republic), it was once part of the powerful monarchy of Austria-Hungary. [70][73] Although the two rented a flat and set a wedding date, the marriage never took place. He completed his Matura exams in 1901. "[165], Kafka's stories were initially published in literary periodicals. But this was Don Hill's. I was sitting in twenty-year-old beer. [90] On weekends, he and his friends embarked on long hikes, often planned by Kafka himself. [285], The Franz Kafka Prize, established in 2001, is an annual literary award of the Franz Kafka Society and the City of Prague. The boy, whose name is not known, was born in 1914 or 1915 and died in Munich in 1921. Brod found it difficult to arrange Kafka's notebooks in chronological order. [187] Pasley was the editor for Das Schloss, published in 1982, and Der Process (The Trial), published in 1990. Kafka also touches on the theme of human conflict with bureaucracy. [164] Dark and at times surreal, the novel is focused on alienation, bureaucracy, the seemingly endless frustrations of man's attempts to stand against the system, and the futile and hopeless pursuit of an unattainable goal. These were confiscated by the Gestapo in 1933, but scholars continue to search for them. they cried to him. [187] Known as "Definitive Editions", they include translations of The Trial, Definitive, The Castle, Definitive, and other writings. In Berlin, he lived with Dora Diamant, a 25-year-old kindergarten teacher from an orthodox Jewish family, who was independent enough to have escaped her past in the ghetto. Eine Geschichte von Franz Kafka. Franz Kafka (July 3, 1883 - June 3, 1924) was one of the major German language novelists and short story writers of the twentieth century, whose unique body of writingmuch of it incomplete and published posthumously despite his wish that it be destroyedhas become iconic in Western literature.. His most famous pieces of writing include his short story Die Verwandlung (The Metamorphosis . He wrote the story "Beschreibung eines Kampfes" ("Description of a Struggle")[c] in 1904; he showed it to Brod in 1905 who advised him to continue writing and convinced him to submit it to Hyperion. Father was Hermann Kafka, who worked as a traveling salesman and later owned his own company. When Mr. Brod fled to Tel Aviv from Prague on the last train out in 1939 as the Nazis rolled in, he had with him a suitcase full of Kafka's documents. "[118] Kafka considered moving to Palestine with Felice Bauer, and later with Dora Diamant. Among his papers after his death were found several notes addressed to his A biographical account of Franz Kafka (1883-1924), includes resources Franz Kafka, 1883-1924 . It is ironic that Kafka's greatest creative period, from 1912 to 1917, exactly matched his torturous .